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0 -
picture source;
1 - ice sheets boundaries;
2 - subarctic meadows;
3 - tundra's flora with steppe kindreds;
4 - periglacial forest steppe with tundra elements;
5 - periglacial steppe in permafrost zone;
6 - periglacial steppe in deep seasonal freezing zone;
7 - marine transgression zone;
8 - boundary of permafrost zone;
9 - sites of the Last Glacial;
10 - sites of the maximum glaciation;
11 - sites of pre-Bryansk and Bryansk periods.
From 50,000 BC modern human formed
Kostenki-Streletskaya and Kostenki-Spitsinskaya cultures in the
center of Russian Plain. Their range included
Don's, Desna's and Dnieper's basins and was bordered with Biruchyi Balki
site in the Siversky Donets river valley in the south; Sungir site by the
Klyazma riverbank (next to Vladimir) in the north; and Garchi site in the
Transurals region. These cultures
are characterized with ground-based houses up to 35 meters long and 9
meters width, sculptures of Makosha divinity, mattocks, etc. Two
sites are referred to Streletskaya culture - Kostenki XII - layer IA and
fifth layer of Kostenki XI. Streletskaya culture refers to two early
chronological periods. Second occupation layer of Kostenki XVII (Spitsinskaya
site) has been found in the lower humus depth, no houses found. First
layer of the Kostenki XII site refers to the same culture.
Second chronological group includes parallel
cultures, which are different from Streletskaya culture and even from each
other - Gorodtsovskaya (four sites in the upper humus depth - Kostenki XV,
XIV-second layer, XII-first layer, XVI) and Telman (Kostenki VIII, second
layer). Upper humus depth contains second occupation layer of Kostenki
VIII (150 km from Kostenki XV), where large ground-based rounded houses
with a fireplace in the middle have been found. No Mousterian forms have
been found (so there is no trace of Neanderthals). V. Khmelevsky
associated upper layer of Kostenki VII with the Ezhman culture (common in
Poland 36,160±1250 BC).
Upper part of loess loams contains upper
layer of Kostenki I, referred to Kostenki-Avdeevskaya culture. Avdeevskaya
site was created by modern humans - there are ground-based houses and
feminine figurines (Kursk). According to all cultural features Avdeevskaya
site was similar with Kostenki I (upper layer). Kostenki-Avdeevskaya
culture of early and middle periods of Upper Paleolithic (before 15,000
BC) is a part of so-called Kostenki-Willendorf unity of Upper Paleolithic
sites or cultures of Russian Plain and Central and Western Europe. Sites
have some common features in material and intellectual cultures:
ground-based houses, ornaments, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines
are most common.
From 35,000 BC modern human began moving
from the center of Russian Plain to the south and west. First appeared at
the East European Plane after tall (180,4 cm) Sungirs, Cro-Magnons began
spreading in Europe during Aurignacian (34,000-28,000 years ago) and
Gravettian (28,000-20,000 years ago) periods. The expansion explains finds
of feminine figurines (so called "Paleolithic Makoshas") and construction
of long-term houses.
Kostenki Complex | 45,000-35,000 BC |
Picture
Source
Near Kostenki village, Khokholsky Raion, Voronezh Oblast.
Kostenki is unique from the chronological perspective - it is the world
oldest settlement of Caucasoid race. Square - about 0,005 km². Site was
found in 1879 by Russian archeologist Ivan Polyakov. Kostenki isn't a
single settlement, so in some sources you can find a number after the
name, where of the most well-known are Kostenki-12 (Caucasoids) and
Kostenki-14 (Negroids). Settlements consisted of the tents with the
skeletons of mammoth's tusks. There is an assumption, that settlements
were destroyed by severe volcanic eruption.
Sungir Site
| 30,000-25,000 BC
Influx of the Sungir stream into the Klyazma river (near Vladimir).
Population - about 50 men in 6 houses. About 5,000 m² of occupation layer
excavated, which complies with living area of several hectares (like in
Kostenki) - about 0,005 km². Sungir is 9 times smaller than Byblos, which
existed 26,000 years later. Sungir site existed or was regularly visited
by humans for 2-3 thousand years. Sungir's estimated data: population
density - 10,000 men/km²; 8,3 men/house. Was found in 1955 while
constructing a plant, studied by O. Baner.
Byki Site
| 23,600-14,000 BC
Located on the left bank of the Seym river in Kursk Oblast (2 km to the
south from Byki village and 2,5 km to the south from the recent riverbed).
Square - 500×400 m – 0,2 km². It is 5 times larger and 20,000 years older
than Byblos, 10 times larger than Arkaim (1700 BC), and 1,5 times larger
and 18,000 years older than Çatal Höyük. The site contains capital
heat-insulated and light ground-based houses, multiple stone and bone
artifacts, pieces of primeval art. Studied by G. Grigoryeva in 1978 and by
A. Chubur in 1994-1999.
Gagarino Site | 22,000-21,000 BC
Left bank of the Don river, below Lipetsk.
Gagarino culture in South Russia. Gagarino is the first place on the USSR
territory, where remains of Paleolithic houses were found - half-dugouts
(0,4-0,5 m deep; oval; square 5,5×4,5 m). Walls and roof were made of
poles covered with branches and fells (most possibly), foundations were
reinforced by flagstones and large bones. The site contains flinty tools,
bone awls, dart tips, needles, charms of drilled animal's teeth, 9
realistic feminine figurines of mammoth's tusks, one unique double
figurine. Gagarino culture existed along with Neanderthal Gravettian
culture. Found in 1926, dug-up in 1927 and 1929 by S. Zamyatnin and in
1961-1969 by L. Tarasov.
Avdeevskaya Site | 21,000 BC
Near Avdeyevo village, 40 km from Kursk.
Excavations resulted with oval regular-shaped 45×19 m settlement with the
half-dugouts on its edges. Settlement consists of 7 houses with 4-8 m²
square, located around the square. Square – 855 m² or 0,001 km², which is
20 times smaller then Arkaim, but with the similar architecture - some
scientists assume, that Avdeevskaya site formed a group of adjoined
buildings in a form of closed oval - such form didn't let predators and
hostiles inside. Diameter of the inner Arkaim's wall (Citadel wall) was 85
m, so the square of Arkaim's Citadel was 575 m² – 1,5 smaller than in
Avdeevskaya site. Artifacts: flinty tips, blades, cutters, scrapers, bone
adzes, diggers, glosses, awls and finery, feminine statuettes, figurine of
a mammoth. All cultural features show that Avdeevskaya site is pretty
similar with Kostenki (upper layer). Studied by M. Voevodsky in 1946-1948
and A. Rogachev in 1949.
Zarayskaya Site | 21,000-20,000 BC
Center of Zaraysk town, Moscow Oblast.
Houses 5 m length located in a circle. Excavations were performed by A.
Trusov in 1980, resumed by K. Amirkhanov in 1995 and last till now. To
2006 total square of excavated surface is about 450 square meters.
Mizinskaya Site | 18,000 BC
Right bank of the Desna river in Myozin village (Koropsky Raion, Chirnihiv
Oblast, Ukraine).
Referred to the early period of Magdalenian culture. Unlike Neanderthals
of this culture, Myozin's humans constructed ground-based rounded and oval
houses (diameter up to 6 m) of wood, with fells on the roof, surrounded
with bunkers and workshops. Site is famous for lots of pieces of art –
ornamented birds figurines, bracelets of mammoth's tusks, one of them is
covered with the first ever known meander, Makosha's statuettes of
mammoth's tusk. First ensemble of musical instruments is found at this
site. Related Links:
http://donsmaps.com/wolfcamp.html
Eliseevichi Site | 16,000-13,000 BC
Next to Eliseevichi village, Bryansk Oblast (right bank of the Sudost
river, right influx of the Desna river).
Mammoth bones were used as skeleton for the houses. Lower layer is dated
as 16,000-13,000 BC (Myozin culture). Upper occupation layer of
Eliseevichi 1 is related to the period of 13,000-10,000 BC (Desnyansk
culture), not so many artifacts have been found there. Site contains a lot
of different stone (cutters, srikles, thumbnail scrapers etc.) and bone
(awls, needles, hoes) tools, and large ornamented blades of mammoth's
tusks (remind of Australian Churingas), feminine statuette of mammoth's
tusk etc. Excavated by K. Polikarpovich (1930, 1935, 1946, 1948).
Yudinovo Site | 15,000-13,000 BC
Right bank of the Sudost river, Pogarsky Raion, Bryansk Oblast.
Long-term systematic archeological studies were performed in Yudinovo
village. It resulted with lots of artifacts of different ages – sites,
settlements, burials - all these objects were united in historical
archeological reservation along with wooden craftsmanship artifacts and
memorial objects. Paleolithic site Yudinivo 1 (one of three sites at the
village territory, most studied) is rightfully considered as the gem of
Yudinovo. Excavations, performed by K. Polikarpovich, V. Bud'ko, Z.
Abramova and G. Grigoryeva last until now. Its result is the settlement
with bunkers and remains of four round houses-yarangas of mammoth's tusks.
Two houses were made a museum objects by archaeologists and "Pobeda"
kolkhoz – they are surrounded by pavilion and are open for visitors. The
site contains flinty and bone tools, finery and pieces of art of mammoth's
tusks and sea-shells, multiple animal remains. Moreover, there are several
Paleolithic sites closer to Yudinovo (studied by V. Bud'ko and V. Sergin),
burial ground of the Bronze Age, settlements of Mesolithic, Neolithic,
Bronze Age, Early, High and Late Middle Ages.
Mezhiritskaya Site | 13,000 BC |
Picture Source
Mezhirich village (Kaniv Raion, Cherkasy Oblast, Ukraine) at the influx of
the Rosava river into the Ros' river.
Refers to Mezhirich culture of the middle of Dnieper valley. This culture
existed in 13,000-11,000 BC. Site
contains four large ground-based houses of big mammoth's bones and tusks.
Each house weights about 20 tons. Houses included fireplaces with kitchen
tools, workshops and bunkers. Site is the source of lots of stone
and bone artifacts, like candelabrums of patellar bone, anthropomorphic
figurines, buckles, clasps, needles, red ocher etc. A lot of ornamented
big bones with the figures of fire were found in one of the houses. One of
the most outstanding findings is the ensemble of music instruments
including decorated drum of a mammoth's skull. Related Links:
http://donsmaps.com/mammothcamp.html
Ressetino Culture inherits Upper
Paleolithic traditions of the sites like Gagarino, Khotylevo II and
Kostenki. Ressetino is Swiderian-type archeological culture of 11,000 BC
and is genetically connected with Paleolithic sites of humans of Russian
Plain. Sites of the Ressetino culture: settlement Koltovo 7 (near Kashira,
Moscow Oblast) - its method of flint handling is the evidence of further
development of the Kostenki culture and relationship with
Kostenki-Avdeyevo-Willendorf unity of the Zarayskaya site (21,000-20,000
BC). From 21,000 to 11,000 BC following cultures have been developing and
changed each other within the territory of Russian Plain: Zaraysk →
Avdeyevo → Central Russian → Myozin → Yudinovo → Ressetino.
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Ienevo culture (10,000-6,000 BC,
Ienevo II, Konstantinovskaya IV, Dmitrovskoe 1 etc.) was found within the
territory of Zaraysk. Culture is represented with the large group of sites
in the western part of Volgo-Okskoe interfluve in the upper flow of Volga
and Oka. According to K. Amirkhanov, Ienevo Mesolithic culture is the
apparent heir of Upper Paleolithic complexes like Zarayskaya site.
Pesochnorovsk culture existed in the nearest regions. Along with Ienevo
culture it is the local variant of the same cultural (even ethno-cultural)
phenomenon. Podolsk culture is also considered by most researchers as the
foundation for Ienevo culture. Main business of Ienevo tribes was hunting,
divided into fishing and gathering according to the season (Pt- marker).
Thick
occupation layers and complicated houses are the evidences of sedentary
lifestyle (Gt- marker).
In 1972 Verkhnevolzhskaya expedition of the
Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences found the
complex of Sakhtysh Neolithic sites in the Teykovsky District of Ivanovo
Oblast along the Koyka river, which flows out Sakhtysh lake and flows in
Nerl-Klyazmenskaya river. Sites constitute multilayered settlements with
the subsequent layers of the following cultures: Verkhnevolzhsk
(5240-3430 BC), Lyalovsk (4040-2550 BC) and Volosovo (3065-1840 BC).
Verkhnevolzhsk and Volosovo are cultures of modern humans, Lyalovsk is a
culture of Neanderthals.
Research has shown that the layer of Verkhnevolzhsk culture is above
Mesolithic layer of Neanderthal Botovo culture (8,000-6,000 BC).
Verkhnevolzhsk culture occupies vast Volgo-Okskiy region. Its settlements
are located on the high banks of rivers and lakes, on the lake islands and
dune hills. Houses are small (square from 6 to 12 square meters), round,
oval or rectangular-shaped with fireplace in the center.
Along with Verkhnevolzhsk culture,
Bug-Dnestr culture have been developing in the southern part of
Russian Plain (most similarities were found in Kyoryosh sites). From
6,000-5,000 BC this culture spread in the region of Southern Bug and
Dnestr (relates to Neolithic, going after Mesolithic). Bug-Dnestr's houses
are small, ground-based, with stone fireplaces and garbage pits.
Strategies - hunting, fishery, cattle raising (pigs, cows), agriculture
(prints of wheat corn on ceramics). Culture is divided into two types -
Southern Bug type and Dnestr type.
Bug-Dnestr
archaeological culture is a component of Cucuteni-Trypillian culture.
Mishenskoe Settlement | to 10,000 BC
Right bank of the Vyrka river, Tula Oblast.
Its square exceeds Çatal Höyük (6,000 BC) and Mevr (1,000 BC). Mishenskoye
is 3 times larger and 7,000 years older than Byblos, 6 times larger and
9,000 years older than Arkaim. And just 4 times smaller than Ryazan and
Suzdal of the XI'th century.
Set of Settlements in Tula Oblast |
10,000-5,000 BC
Karatashovo, Sestrinsky Khryasch, Slobodka 2, Kobyakovo 1, Kikina protoka
1, Voronets etc. - their square is from 0.01 to 0.0424 km² (from 1 to 4
hectares). They are 2 times larger than Jericho (8,000 BC) and Byblos
(4,000 BC).
Settlements Mescherino, Andryushkovo and
Aleksin | 8,000 BC
Tula Oblast.
Age and square are comparable with Jericho.
Settlement Upa-4 | 6,000 BC
Tula.
Relates to Ienevo culture, square is 0,0135 km², which is similar with
Byblos and Arkaim, but 2,000 years older than Byblos and 4,000 years older
than Arkaim. |
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Andronovo Culture
| 2,300-1,000 BC
Based on Yamna culture.
Development of Andronovo culture was uneven. On the West it was bordered
by Urals and Volga, contacting with Srubna culture. On the East Andronovo
culture spread to Minusinsk Hollow with partial inclusion of the territory
of early Afanasevo culture. On the South single sites were found in Kopet
Dag (Turkmenistan), Pamir (Tajikistan) and Tian Shan (Kyrgyzstan) mountain
ranges – region of Dravidian tribes. Northern border of Andronovo culture
is bordered by taiga. Srubna culture is distinguishable in Volga's basin.
Fedorovo-like ceramics was found in Volgograd. Recently researchers point
out several cultures as parts of Andronovo culture:
Sintashta-Petrovka-Arkaim (2,200-1,600 BC; South Urals, Northern
Kazakhstan; Sintashta fortress, Arkaim settlement), Alakul
(2,100-1,400 BC; between Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya rivers, Kyzyl Kum desert;
Alekseevka), Fedorovo (1,500-1,300 BC; South Siberia; Beshkent
District – Vakhsh river).
Land of Cities | 1,800-1,000 BC
Nowadays Arkaim-type cities and fortified settlements are found within the
large territory, covering south of Chelyabinsk Oblast, south-east of
Bashkortostan, east of Orenburg Oblast and north of Kazakhstan. "Map" of
the land contains 17 cities, but actually there are over 20 of them and
tenths of settlements. Each city was a center of district (like rural
area) with its settlements.
"Cities" are extremely similar. All of them are surrounded by walls and
bulwarks (rather complicated fortifications). Plan of the city represents
oval, round or rectangle (practically square). There are six "oval"
cities: Bersaut, Alandy, Isiney, Kizil... There are also six round cities,
Arkaim is one of them. Most multiple are rectangular cities: Stepnoe,
Ust'e, Rodniki... there are some cities with the mixed contours of
fortifications. For example, aerial photos of Stepnoy and Kuisak show all
three figures. Fortifications were rebuild three times there. Assumption
is that oval form was the first variant, round - the second and
rectangular - the last one.
Regardless the form of a city, it was built according to sort of typical
project. Square in the center is a must. 1-2 streets have circular
corduroy, with storm water and sanitary drain. Houses (more possibly it is
apartments with common walls) contain wells, pantries, kitchens with
fireplaces and tables, bedrooms. "Apartments" are huge - up to 10
bedrooms. Overall square of one "apartment" is 100-180 m². It appears that
one apartment belonged to one clan, with bedrooms according to the amount
of families, for 60-70 relatives at all. Each "apartment" had backyard and
workshop. People made crockery, weaved, tailored, timbered, made battle
carts (oldest in the world). There were a lot of metalworkers - bronze
welders, smiths, molders. Townsmen didn't have any cattle. Town was a
center of rural area for several villages, where main activities were
ranching cattle and agriculture. There are even traces of irrigation.
Nowadays the most popular opinion is that "cities" were religious centers,
where priests lived and performed ceremonies, and all members of a tribe
came to a city for religious celebrations. Square in the center of a city
was outdoor temple. Fortresses were garrisons for soldiers, all the
population hided there during hostile attacks. Cities performed
manufacturing functions. Craftsmen were being guarded for a reason - their
skills were of high value, it especially concerns metalworkers. There is a
hypothesis, that Land of the cities appeared here because of available and
fine copper ore and the main destination of fortresses was defense of
mines and metallurgical "plants". Right next to the famous Magnitogorsk
industrial zone of our days its Bronze Age predecessors were located.
Local metal and tools were exported far beyond South Urals.
Sintashta | 2,000-1,600 BC
Right bank of the Sintashta river (left influx of the Tobol river) between
Rymniksky and Mirny villages (Bredinsky District of Chelyabinsk Oblast).
Complex includes Sintashta fortified settlement (site SP), Big Sintashta's
burial mound (SB), Sintashta cemetery (SC), Sintashta's III burial mound (SIII)
and Small (ground) Sintashta cemetery. Fortified settlement was hardly
damaged by the changed direction of the riverbed. In ancient times there
was a ring of fortifications, which surrounded solid blocks of large
domestic buildings. Includes 24 beat-cob buildings with the square of
25-130 m² Overall square is from 6.000 to 30.000 m². Basic fortifications
were a wall of ground and wood and a bulwark. Two entrances saved:
river-faced southern and northern, – to temple and burial complex and
cemetery. Battle cart was found at one of the sites (Krivoe lake). Its age
was calculated using horse's bones and appeared to be 2026 BC. So the
representatives of Sintashta culture are first known users of battle
carts. Found in 1968 by expedition of Ural State University. Research and
excavations have been performed till 1986 by Ural-Kazakhstan's
archaeological expedition under the guidance of V. Gening and G. Zdanovich.
Well-known Ural's archaeologists (L. Koryakova, V, Stefanov, N. Vonogradov
etc.) participated in research of Sintashta complex. Most similar site -
Arkaim.
Arkaim |
XVII-XVI cc. BC
Related Links:
http://www.dazzle.ru/spec/arkaim-3.shtml (in Russian)
Voskresenskoye Settlement | X
(beginning) c. BC
Tula Oblast.
3 times larger than Mevr (middle of first millenium BC) and was
practically equal to such Russian cities as Old Ryazan of X century
(settlement of 48 hectares on the right bank of Oka river, near Spassk)
and Suzdal of XI century. |
